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Orientations | Volume 55 Number 4 | JULY/AUGUST 2024 harmonization took place during the reign of the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–56). No complete Qur’an manuscripts have survived from the 7th century, but many parchment leaves and fragments containing Qur’anic text have been dated to this period via palaeographic analysis. The David Collection owns a single parchment leaf from a Qur’an dated circa 650–700 (fig. 2). The leaf, which contains passages from sura (chapter) 2, ‘The Cow’, is densely covered in Arabic script executed in brown ink. Moreover, underneath the main text layer there are contours of a sublayer in a lighter brown colour. The sublayer, which also contains passages from sura 2, was completely erased at some point to allow for the reuse of the parchment, but with time residues of the original ink layer have become visible again. The text of both layers is written in a script which is often called Hijazi, meaning ‘from al-Hijaz’—the region of western Arabia where the cities of Mecca and Medina are located. Hijazi is a loosely defined style of writing rather than a fully standardized script type. As can be seen from the two layers on this leaf, there is a degree of uniformity with regard to the size and shaping of letters, but discrepancies such as the orientation of the ascending strokes show that Hijazi was also influenced by the habits of individual scribes. Looking at the leaf as a whole, the layout of the text is somewhat haphazard. The bulging lines extend all the way to the edges, and the margin decoration—which later became a splendid and refined element of Qur’an manuscripts—is restricted to a single small and partially coloured circle-shaped ornament barely visible at the centre of the left margin, marking the end of a ten-verse section. The leaf seems to reflect a period when Qur’ans were regarded as vehicles of textual communication rather than aesthetic objects, and when limited resources prompted scribes to recycle used parchment and to use the space offered by each leaf to the fullest. This picture would change rapidly in the succeeding centuries as Islamic civilization expanded and matured. The layout of a Qur’an leaf from the middle of the 8th century (fig. 3) betrays thorough planning, ensuring perfectly horizontal lines and sharp, uniform margins. The text is written in Kufi script, which is based on a strict system of proportion that determines the height and shape of each letter. Looking at the horizontal strokes that connect the letters, we see that they have been carefully shortened and extended to create a harmonious text block. Known as mashq (extension), the technique is another characteristic feature of Kufi script. This 4 Leaf from a Qur’an in gilt Kufi script Iraq or Syria?; 9th century Ink and gold on parchment; 27 x 36.5 cm The David Collection Photo: Pernille Klemp 5 Leaf from ‘The Blue Qur’an’ North Africa; c. 900 Ink, silver, and gold on indigo-dyed parchment; 28.6 x 38 cm The David Collection Photo: Pernille Klemp 36
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7 Two leaves from ‘The Pink Qur’an’ Spain or Morocco; 13th–14th century Ink and gold on coloured paper; 32.4 x 25.6 cm (each leaf) The David Collection Photo: Pernille Klemp 6 Double leaf from ‘The Nurse’s Qur’an’ Tunesia, Qairouan; January–February 1020 Ink on parchment; 44.2 x 29.5 cm (each half) The David Collection Photo: Pernille Klemp 37

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Orientations | Volume 55 Number 4 | JULY/AUGUST 2024

harmonization took place during the reign of the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–56).

No complete Qur’an manuscripts have survived from the 7th century, but many parchment leaves and fragments containing Qur’anic text have been dated to this period via palaeographic analysis. The David Collection owns a single parchment leaf from a Qur’an dated circa 650–700 (fig. 2). The leaf, which contains passages from sura (chapter) 2, ‘The Cow’, is densely covered in Arabic script executed in brown ink. Moreover, underneath the main text layer there are contours of a sublayer in a lighter brown colour. The sublayer, which also contains passages from sura 2, was completely erased at some point to allow for the reuse of the parchment, but with time residues of the original ink layer have become visible again. The text of both layers is written in a script which is often called Hijazi, meaning ‘from al-Hijaz’—the region of western Arabia where the cities of Mecca and Medina are located. Hijazi is a loosely defined style of writing rather than a fully standardized script type. As can be seen from the two layers on this leaf, there is a degree of uniformity with regard to the size and shaping of letters, but discrepancies such as the orientation of the ascending strokes show that Hijazi was also influenced by the habits of individual scribes.

Looking at the leaf as a whole, the layout of the text is somewhat haphazard. The bulging lines extend all the way to the edges, and the margin decoration—which later became a splendid and refined element of Qur’an manuscripts—is restricted to a single small and partially coloured circle-shaped ornament barely visible at the centre of the left margin, marking the end of a ten-verse section. The leaf seems to reflect a period when Qur’ans were regarded as vehicles of textual communication rather than aesthetic objects, and when limited resources prompted scribes to recycle used parchment and to use the space offered by each leaf to the fullest. This picture would change rapidly in the succeeding centuries as Islamic civilization expanded and matured.

The layout of a Qur’an leaf from the middle of the 8th century (fig. 3) betrays thorough planning, ensuring perfectly horizontal lines and sharp, uniform margins. The text is written in Kufi script, which is based on a strict system of proportion that determines the height and shape of each letter. Looking at the horizontal strokes that connect the letters, we see that they have been carefully shortened and extended to create a harmonious text block. Known as mashq (extension), the technique is another characteristic feature of Kufi script. This

4 Leaf from a Qur’an in gilt Kufi script Iraq or Syria?; 9th century Ink and gold on parchment; 27 x 36.5 cm The David Collection Photo: Pernille Klemp

5 Leaf from ‘The Blue Qur’an’ North Africa; c. 900 Ink, silver, and gold on indigo-dyed parchment; 28.6 x 38 cm The David Collection Photo: Pernille Klemp

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